HISTORY FORM 4 TOPIC 3:CHANGES IN POLITICAL, SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC POLICIES IN AFRICA AFTER INDEPENDENCE PART ONE

CHANGES IN POLITICAL, SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC POLICIES IN AFRICA AFTER INDEPENDENCE

BACKGROUND
In 1960 many African states began to achieve their political independence which generally has been referred to as “flag independence” despite the fact that African got their political independence, still African remained under indirect penetration of foreign domination, politically, socially, economically and militarily. The political independence had little impact on the life style of the masses that’s why it has been referred to as “ceremonial independence” or “flag independence”.

The political independence was largely characterized with political and social economic problems legacy of colonialism, i.e. the problems were inherited from the colonial economy and colonialism, such problems included mass illiteracy of the masses, poverty, tribalism, poor infrastructures etc

The real political legacy of colonial government in Africa was that of an alien dictatorship, benevolent at times, but always prepared to crush outspoken opposition. Many of African leaders had suffered periods of detention without trials for daring to speak out against the unjust and arbitrary nature the government.

What’s flag independence?
Flag independence this refers to the type of Independence that the Africa nations attained during their struggles in 1960s 70s and 80s from their colonial masters; it was just ceremonial independence of hoisting the national flags and bringing down the colonial flags. But still African remained victims of foreign domination in all spheres of life, Political economical and socially remained dependant to their former ‘colonial masters, and at times it’s referred to as Neo colonialism.

Surely no substantial changes ever took place in terms of pre- existing production relation and ownership of the major means of production. The independence constitution merely cemented the exploitative social relation, it’s in this context that one may view the independence achieved as mere “flag independence”. The territory economy remained tied to the former metropolitan state and international capital.

FEATURES OF FLAG INDEPENDENCE
It leads dependence syndrome where by the country will depend largely from their former colonial masters for any development programmes.

It leads to the rise of puppet or sycophant leaders in the government who aim at serving and appeasing the colonial masters, but not to serve the interests of their people.
Absence of national culture and national identity, where by the foreign culture largely Influence the culture of people like education dressing and even table manners.

The constitution was written by the experts in the colonial government and then brought in the metropolitan parliament to approve.
Western model of politics with all ceremony and formality is followed in the territory like mult-party system democracy was to be included in the national constitution.

Absence of real political sovereignty in the sense that most of the political polices are made by the former colonial masters there is always political interference and sabotage from foreign countries.

Weak and small military machinery since most of the military assistance come from former colonial masters.

During the period of self government the colonial administrators reserved to themselves control of strategic areas these included the armed forces, finances and international relations.

THE SITUATION OF AFRICA AT THE POINT OF INDEPENDENCE.

BACKGROUND
Most of the African states immediately after independence faced numerous problems. The problems that most African nations faced since independence have, very largely, been the product of their history. The root of many African current problems in final decades of the twenties century are to be found in the period of colonial rule of the pervious eighty years or more. That were generated and inherited from colonial rule. Some of the problems included the following.

A. Political problems
They left a highly centralized administration system where by the central leader has got a lot of power in the state in most cases this power was vested in the traditional leaders or kings in case of British colonies, Such a system of administration has proved a failure and produced many inefficient leaders, incompetence, unnecessary bureaucracy and misdirection in administration.

They left limited trained African man powers to carry out the administration. The majority of Africans were uneducated or totally illiterates barely 10% were educated by the time of independence in sub -Saharan Africa that

The military structure was organized in the way that it was not separated from the political administration that’s why most of the independent African states experienced numerous coup de-tat. Where by military juntas took over the political arena

The colonialist planted tribalism among the Africans as to maintain disunity during colonialism, but this was inherited even in the period of post independent African, divide and rule policy was given priority. Most of the Africa nations with multi-party system political parties were based more upon the personal ethnic or regional origin of a particular politician than upon differing economic ideologies to guide the country’ s future development.

The boundaries left by the colonialist were mostly totally artificial. They had been created at the whim of European politicians with little regard for Africa’s multitude of pre-colonial nation state and stateless villages and communities, divided various ethnic groups into boundaries in other words natural African borders were abolished and artificial ones were formed. The artificial boundaries caused a problem of ‘national’ unity after independence.

They introduced foreign administration structure where by foreigners especially the whites ware involved in the running of the colony. In the post independent African state the most important sectors like finance Military and national planning remained in the hands of foreigners.

B. Economical and Social Problems
The colonial government let Africa with the mounting economic crisis that had been the end- product of eighty year of colonial is rule. The African economies had been directed towards exporting cheap agriculture raw materials and unprocessed minerals to Europe and in return importing relatively expensive manufactured goods, thus an economic crisis.

They left inadequate Social infrastructures especially transport net work schools medical centers and imbalanced regional development. The infrastructures that were left were inadequate for the continental internal development, they were virtually no regional roads or rail links between one region from another which would promote internal trade most of the railway had been developed around the turn of the century to ease the export of continent wealthy to Europe. By the time of independence the few structures that had been built were badly in need of repair.

African government inherited two particularly repressive economic policies from their colonial predecessors; poll tax and agricultural marketing boards. The former was charged on all adults males regardless of their income. The latter paid fixed low prices to farmers, while selling their products for higher prices abroad keeping the difference as government revenues. Both repressive policies were retained by the post independent African nations

Created of economic stratification in the society i.e. the peasants who lived in rural areas were the majority living in miserable poverty their major economic activity being agriculture which fetched low prices that made their surviving ore difficulty by the time of independence around 95% of the population depended on agriculture for survival and the petty bourgeoisie/working class who lived towns in good standard of living.

They left a highly dependant economy, where by the post independent African states produced raw material for their former colonial master and consumed finished goods from the metro pole. This promoted the unfavorable terms of trade that led to indebt of many post independent African nations.

They left Avery small industrial sector by ensuring that Africa remain de- industrialized and prepare it as potential market for European finished goods.

They introduced traditional cash crops in Africa which were monoculture to become the source of foreign earner from the metropole.

Created cultural dependence by distorting of African culture and establishment of foreign culture. Where by African values and culture were destroyed and de-campaigned by the colonialists. Dress language eating manners religion were adopted and inferior complex was instilled to the Africa always to despise their culture and customs This created disunity among the Africans.

PROBLEMS THAT FACED BY AFRICAN NATION AFTER INDEPENDENCE
Mass poverty many Africans are living below the international poverty line surviving s on less than one dollar a day this mass poverty was caused by colonialism were by African were denied to participant in meaningful economic activities apart from providing cheap labor. But the most important is the fall in world commodity prices for Africa principle agriculture export in the mid 1 960s. Manufactured imports which Africa had depended on relatively became more expensive poverty in post independent Africa has been also contributed much by African new political masters to do much beyond enriching themselves, ignoring the majority peasant to live abject poverty.
Mass illiteracy many African are unable to read or to write this was due to inadequate educational centers provided by the colonialists, the colonial education was segregative, and it was only children of the chiefs that were given priority. By the time o independence less than 10 % of Africans were fully educated most were in rural areas were they could not get access to proper education.

Tribalism and nepotism are some o the major problems that are facing the post independent African states these were sown deliberately as a move of the colonialist to favor some tribes and leave others un developed, as to divide and rule. Even some political parties were built on the lines of ethnic groupings. A politician was supported not because he possessed good national policies but because he belonged to a certain ethnic group.

Lack of political administrators that has witnessed corruption misdirection of the state and incompetence of some African leaders very few African were highly educated to provide quality administrative services, most of the Africans lacked skills of administration and political will to help their people. Indeed it has been argued that within some African countries that the educated elites in the post independent Africa era had in practice done little more than replace white colonial rulers with ‘black colonial rulers!’

Internal disputes that generated due to various political ideologies that made African nations to go to internal wars this was especially socialism vs. capitalism. Most African nations begun to abandon capitalism and multi-partism system of administration they went on one party state as to bring national unity. But this led to the suppression of opposition, detention dictatorship that accelerated civil conflict in the states

Boundary disputes, the natural boundaries were not considered by the colonialist when partitioning Africa this generated disputes afterwards. The artificial of national boundaries caused serious problems of National unity after independence. Various tribes were divided by colonial bounders e.g. Luo in Kenya and Tanzania the Haya in Uganda and Tanzania.

Lack of enough social infrastructures the colonialists constructed very few social infrastructure to serve colonial production, according to their needs in places were there was no colonial production ware ignored.

Foreign interference in internal affaires, the post independent African nations have not been free or independent as its always portrayed, former colonial masters have always influenced the state especially through Neo colonialism were by the former colonial master always tend to influence the political arena economic and social aspect of African nations.

Foreign debt from outside especially European nations this has been acquired especially from World bank and IMF with high interest rates, that makes it impossible to be paid back and to service it.

Military coup d’ c-tat this was because the military was not separated from the political system many African states experienced military rule. Most of the French speaking countries apart from Senegal Guinea and Cote’d’ivoire, went over to military rule during the 1 960s. Togo and Dahomey (renamed Benin in 1974) suffered frequent military coups and counter-coups. From November 1965 coup followed coup with frightening regularity taking Nigeria and Ghana in early 1966. By the early I 970s military rule had became a serious Africa political option. It remained the most frequent means for change of government through the 1970s and 1980s.

Corruption has become very rampant in many post independent African states especially south of the Sahara, the political leaders like, government ministers, some civil servants and other branches of minority educated elite are becoming increasingly wealthier. Through corruption, like embezzlement of public funds, office abuse, bribes misusing of public funds etc. The income gap between the rural based poor and the urban civil servants is increasing day by day in the post independent African states.

Lack of political awareness and sensitization due to mass illiteracy among the masses tend not to know their political rights and responsibility. They have been vulnerable to political manipulation and abuse due to their ignorance of political responsibility.

Existence of diseases like Malaria which kills 2 out of 5 infants and also aids has proved a problem to the post independent African nations. Many post independent African nations have failed to come out with political and social solution to the menace

Lack of strong economic base agriculture has been dominant as the major economic activity, but their yield has been always very low and price fluctuation is too much. Since colonialism African economies were directed towards exporting primary goods which fetched low prices and based on imported finished European goods that were costly to purchase.

Natural calamities like floods volcano eruption famine storms epidemics etc. These natural calamities are partly blamed on poor planning and lack of foresighted political leaders accompanied with political will to serve the masses

Religious differences it brought disunity and internal disputes like in Nigeria, and Sudan Muslims fight Christians and many are killed in such crushes.

SOLUTIONS OF THE PROBLEMS FACED BY POST INDEPENDENT AFRICAN STATES.
To alleviate poverty in Africa can be solved by, increasing income for every family/home. This can be solved by increasing employment opportunities to the masses as to increase their purchasing power, by providing free and subsidized basic necessities to reduce the expenditure of the masses which may include medical, school fees, and food.

To create a government of democracy and transparency whereby corruption can be checked and lavish government expenditure should be checked and be stopped.

Equal distribution of national cake by stopping nepotism whereby it’s only few people of one tribe or one region that dominate the government and enjoy sweet jobs, equal representation should be in place to all regions and tribes in the government jobs.

To elect capable leaders who are patriotic and able to care for their people, with good economic plans for development of the people.

To provide basic education and technical education to the masses so as they can solve the problem of unemployment and engage into serious economic ventures/business. This calls for revising national syllabus which trains job seekers instead of job Creators.

Get rid of neo-colonialism and develop an independent self sustaining economy which would help to solve the problem of Africa without foreign intervention.

To diversify our economy from agricultural based to be both industrial and agricultural as to create link between these two major sectors .What we produce can be used as raw materials in industries and industrial product can be purchase/consume by the agricultural sector. This will increase the market base and solve the problem of poverty.

To promote national unity among the masses through one party system so as to avoid many party systems that may bring divisions among the masses, and also national languages should be promoted as to forge unity of the people:
Introduction of national education that is based on the environment of Africa and needs as to avoid the colonial education that produce white collar job seekers instead of job creators, this definitely will solve the problem of mass unemployment.

DEVELOPMENT OF ONE PARTY SYSTEM. [MONO PARTY]

BACKGROUND
During the struggle for independence many African states had developed multiparty politics as a system to prepare them for independence; it was encouraged by the colonial masters as their pass for independence. E.g. in Tanganyika there were T.A.A and T.A.N.U. in Uganda they were U.P.C, D.P, and K.Y. However from 1960-1970s many African states begun to reject multi-party parliamentary system as unworkable. They pleaded the particular circumstances of their country’s crying to unite in order to achieve rapid national development in social and economic. By the late 1 980s only Botswana with its low population of one million people had maintained unbroken record of multi- party democracy since independence. But almost all post independent African states had switched to one part system.

FACTORS FOR ONE PARTY SYSTEM AFTER INDEPENDENCE.
(a) INTERNAL FACTORS
To promote unity and solidarity among the Africans under one party system after having been disunited on political lines by the colonialist, e.g. C.C.M in Tanzania, U.P.C in Uganda K.A.N.U in Kenya emerged as single party. The argument in favor o one party system was that parliamentary opposition based on multi party democracy bases upon ethnic regional interest was destructive rather than constructive opposition.

To avoid political opposition of other parties immediately after independence which would hamper national development since the African masses were politically novice with the new political system of multi-parties at that particular time.

To avoid civil wars among Africans since they were politically inexperienced immediately after independence. And multi-party politics was viewed as a tool to divide the masses basing on their ethnic origin that in the long run may result into civil conflicts, where by every tribe or region struggling to dominant political power. For example in Rwanda and Burundi were the ethnic Tutsi fight ethnic Hutu to control political power.

To avoid imperialist influence on local politics, through passing in other political opposition parties. Multi-party politics also was avoided as one of the method for not allowing foreign influence into local politics especially the former colonial power who still wanted to control their former colonies through third party.

To eradicate poverty and ignorance and diseases this can be well dealt with less than one party system, thus promoting national development by avoiding useless political rivalry of multi-party politics.

To promote good governance by checking on corruption .and misallocation of public funds, in some one-party states such as Tanzania and Zambia, election showed that unpopular government ministers could indeed be voted out of office. But the awful lot depended upon the political integrity of the party leader and his ability to control the enthusiasm of local party member. But in some states one party system led to abuse of state power like in Malawi, Uganda. 

(b) EXTERNAL FACTORS.
The role of U.S.S.R, the leader of socialistic bloc which encouraged the formation of one party system known as vanguard party or workers’ party, the independence in the many African states coincided with the rise of cold war in Europe between two antagonistic ideology of capitalism and socialism. Many post independent African states adopted Marxist ideology of political economy that called for the formation of one-party state politics.

The support of other socialist states like China, Cuba which provided material and moral support to the countries that adopted socialism of one party system.
The influence of the ancient great political philosophers like Plato who advocated one party government as the only better method to serve the masses in any nation and on top of the ancient philosophers many post independent African states viewed capitalism as a mode of production that is largely based on exploitation of the masses, thus adoption of the alternative methods of socialism.
 
POST INDEPENDENT MILITARY COUP D’ÉTAT IN AFRICAN CONTINENT. 
BACKGROUND
Coup d’état refers to the sudden military overthrow of civilian government by armed force. The post independent African countries were dominated by military regimes, which were witnessed by military coups, especially in 1960s up to 1970s.The first military coup was in Egypt in 1952, this marked the beginning of other coups in Sudan 1958, 1969, 1971, and later in 1980, in Zaire 1960 whereby Lumumba was overthrown by Kassa Vumbi, in Togo 1963, in Nigeria ,more than five military coups were conducted, in Algeria in 1971 ,in Uganda 1971 ,etc
In fact by early 1 970s military rule had become a serious African political option. It remained the most frequent means for change of government through the 1970s and 1980s.The causes of coup d’état in Africa immediately after independence were economic social and political causes which manifested during the post independence era that were directly problems generated during colonialism.

FACTORS FOR THE COUP D’ÉTAT IMMEDIATELY AFTER INDEPENDENCE.

Failure of the civilian government to bring development after independence, coup d’état was always seen as the .only means of overthrowing an incompetent or unpopular leaders it made the military men to become frustrated and overthrow the government most of the post independent African leaders were puppet leaders that tended to serve the interest of imperialist and them selves, this made the military to over throw the civilian government.

Secondly the cause of coups in the post independent Africa was that the army inherited at independence had generally and originally been found as part of the process of initial colonial period had generally been held in reserves for internal use against potential rebellious subject rather than for defense of the country against potential hostile neighbors. At independence they had little initial role to play beyond being part of trappings of an independent nation state.

Rigging of election by civilian government also prompted the military intervention to take over the government e.g. in Nigeria the widespread that election of 1964-5 had been rigged finally destroyed the credibility of civilian government that led to the military first coup in Nigeria in January1966

The influence of cold war between capitalism and socialism .Many governments which advocated one ideology, the opposition prepared a coup to replace it with either bloc U.S.A capitalism or Communism of Russia.
Corruption and nepotism made the military government to overthrow the civilian government. In 1 960s military coups were reactions against inefficient and corrupt civilian regimes, the military were known for being well disciplined and usually free from corruption, thus won a lot of support from the masses, and e.g. Milton Obote in Uganda who promoted nepotism with corrupt leaders was eventually overthrown by Iddi Amin Dada in 1971.

Colonial policy of divide and rule which encouraged differences among ethnic groups, the colonial government left fragmented society which was very difficulty to satisfy, this created political struggle among various ethnic groups.

Involving military in politics, most of post independent African nations failed to separate politics and military as it had been made by the colonialists’ .This involvement of the military men into politics led to the overthrow of the civilian government.

Regional imbalance and tribalism E.g. in Nigeria, Uganda, this was brought by colonialism whereby military men came from labor zones which- were undeveloped, thus the overthrow of the civilian government.. In Uganda the northern part was dominated in the army, in Burundi it’s only the Tutsi who dominate the army such situations prepared for a military coup.

Suppression of opposition .Many post independent African states suppressed political parties and begun one party system which many people viewed as a dictatorship, this paved way for military coups e.g. In Nigeria the civilian government of 1979-83 demonstrated freedom of speech freedom of the press but within few years personal greedy suppression of the opposition lavish government spending, ware all welcomed by the coup of 1983 as to restore moral authority and discipline in the public.

Mass illiteracy .After independence many African had not attained the basic education thus they were very easy to be manipulated by any political opportunities

The rise of African elite politicians who had studied in Europe with little experience about African situation, thus after assuming power they failed to change the political, economical and social life style of the masses which made many masses to lose confidence in them and supported military regimes e.g. the February coup in Ghana in 1966 which led to the over throw of Nkrumah who was accused of spending most of his energies into being an international statesman while ignoring his own country mounting problems which led to cut of military defense budget and the government intervention of day to day military affairs.

Vicious poverty in Africa after independence many African governments failed to meet the standard of living for the army. Many military men were paid less and lived in miserable conditions. Poor living conditions they shared a single room with the family the general welfare was declining every another day. This made them very annoyed and tried to overthrow the government as a solution to solve the problem.

The bag of African problems most of which generated from colonialism, colonialism emphasized separateness, and fragmented ness. This has retarded the force of solving common problems of African unity, and instead promoted military over throws of civilian government

WHY MULT-PARTY SYSTEM IN 1990?

BACKGROUND
It should be remembered that during independence many African states began multiparty system which did not last for so long after the attainment of independence where by one party system was adopted especially in 1960s andl97Os. But in 1990s one party system began to collapse especially after the fall of Soviet Union which was the socialist bloc, and then many African nations began to adept multiparty system. E.g. in Tanganyika 1995 there was multiparty election, Kenya in 1992, some of the reasons for multiparty politics was internally motivated while others were externally motivated as we can expand below;

Collapse of U.S.S.R in early 1990s, the leading communist state which used to offer both ideological and material assistance to those countries that followed communist ideology which called for the formation of one party system known as vanguard party or workers party.

The influence of the leading capitalist nations of Europe and U.S.A, also influenced the African nations to adopt multiparty system if there to be given aid from IMF and World Bank which USA had strong influence.

The influence U.N. under her international organization of I.M.F and World Bank which persuaded the African Nations to change from mono-party to multi-party system.

The influence of mass media especially the international mass media like B.B.C, C.N.N etc which criticized one party system as a dictatorship of socialism .This made many countries especially in Africa to change their system.

Changes in national ideology. Many African countries adopted multiparty system after crossing from socialism to capitalism which calls for many party systems, as their national ideology.

Integration of European Union. In 1956 the integration of European Union also had an impact to the African countries to adopt multiparty system as to get assistance from members of European Union.

Failure of one party system to bring development contributed to the rise of many party politics, to check on corruption, nepotism, egoism, and dictatorship.

Increase of elites who had acquired their education in western European nation’s .During 1990 the elite’ people in Africa increased in number and begun to criticize the one party system, as type of dictatorship of socialism.

More commonly one party politics led to an abuse of state power. In countries such as Nkrumah Ghana Banda’s Malawi and most of the former French colonies, the one party was used to give the ruling party dictatorial powers in suppressing any criticisms of the government thus it became more and more unpopular among the masses especially the educated elites.

POST INDEPENDENT POLITICAL INSTABILITIES IN AFRICA.
The post independent African states were dominated with political problems that led upheavals like civil wars. The major causes of these of political instabilities were;

The rise of dictators to power like Iddi Amin Dada in Uganda, Haile Sellasie in Ethiopia Kamuzu Banda in Malawi, forced people to use force as means to overthrow them, thus rise of civil wars.

Tribalism, regionalism, and religious differences, e.g. in Nigeria Muslim v/s Christians, in Uganda the central region v/s the northern part, in Burundi Tutsi v/s Hutu, all these promoted instability and civil wars

Weak economic base /poverty .This has been the root cause of civil wars and instability in Africa. Many Africans have turned against their government accusing them to segregate them from sharing the national cake.

Existence of military Regimes like in Nigeria under San Abacha, in Uganda under Idd Amin. Such military regimes encouraged terror and violence that lead to political instability as their technique to continue clinging in power.

Colonial boundaries and inter regional conflict e.g. in Kenya and Somalia, Ethiopia and Eritrea, Cameroon and Nigeria, Uganda and Tanzania these boundaries were established by the colonialists, But now they have promoted political instability in the regions.

Corruption, Nepotism and lack of transparency in public offices, among the political leaders of Africa after independence, which have led to embezzlement of public funds and uneven distribution of national resources. Some people are segregated from the national cake, this make them to fight against the domination.

Violating human rights, like freedom of speech, freedom of marriage, freedom of movement, freedom of expression heavy punishment, arbitrary arrest, extra judicial killings, etc.

Lack of able political and patriotic administrator, who are forecasted leader who could organize Africans to achieve development. Most of the leaders after independence in Africa were puppets that were planted by colonialist for their own interest.

EFFECTS OF POLITICAL INSTABILITY IN AFRICA.
It promoted national disunity among the masses, basing on tribal lines and regional basis e.g. in Rwanda Burundi the Tutsi and the Hutu are highly divided basing on ethical back ground.

civil wars caused misery, death, and destruction of properties e.g. in Angola, Sudan Uganda and Rwanda among others million of civilians have been internally displaced living in refugee camps were their subjected to all sorts of suffering and misery, while others were killed in the course of war.

It discourages economic development whereby governments spend a lot of money and time to suppress the insurgency or rebels this may be done at the expense of other social development, lack of social development like infrastructure and other social over heads may perpetuate the poverty syndrome in many countries of Africa that faced civil wars.

Occurrence of coup d’état as a result of dissatisfaction among the disgruntled people and this may increase more political tension among the masses which may increase the suffering and misery among the people e.g. in Uganda 1971 where Iddi Amin took over the government that made even foreign forces to intervene.

It leads to the outbreak of diseases like small pox, malaria, aids since little tension is given to healthy sector such diseases happen to increase in numbers in Southern Sudan as much as the war claimed many lives of innocent women and children also diseases have claimed a significant number of children and women in the war zone etc.

It leads to internal displacement of people from places of war to safe places this lead to the discouragement, of agriculture and other economic activities and this may bring famine and malnutrition related diseases.

It brought foreign intervention into national affairs e.g. United nations may intervene European Union or USA, and this is very dangerous at times where by some times such power may not have interest to help or to solve the conflict but rather to increase it for their own national interest e.g. to guarantee market for weapons like in Angola and Southern Sudan were civil wars have taken more than 20 years. 

AFRICAN ECONOMIC CRISIS SINCE INDEPENDENCE [1970-1980]

 BACKGROUND.
Immediately after the independence in Africa there was temporally an economic boom in the world economy, African cash crops and minerals fetched higher prices for the first time. The continent with inexperienced rulers had higher expectation of what could be achieved with political independence. But their dreams were shuttered as the depth of the underlying economic crisis became apparent.

Within few years the African countries had run up huge new debts with the ‘developed’ world, the result was the need of greater-ever exports of cash crops and minerals to finance the debts. This made the old trading patterns to continue, of producing low price fetched primary goods and import highly priced industrial European goods, and the adverse terms of trade got worse. The biggest mistake the new African leaders committed that must have contributed to the economic crisis was the modeling their development programs with those of the so called ‘developed’ industrialized nation of Europe and North American.

In this they were strongly advised by European economic ‘experts’ the theory was simple: Europe was ‘developed’ Africa was ‘underdeveloped’. Therefore to rectify the problem, Africa must c.opy the European model of urban-centered industrialization. African inexperienced leader accepted the model because they saw rapid industrialization as the means to achieve economic self sufficiency. With an idea that if African industrializes then they could manufacture their own consumer goods which up until then had been imported from Europe and will stop the drain of African wealthy to the already ‘developed’ world.

In 1970s and 1980s after independence many African states faced economic crises whereby they failed to provide basic necessities to their people like healthy education economic social and political development. It should be remembered that during the colonial period the African nations under the administration of the metro pole enjoyed good balance of trade. Foreign debt was almost non existence. But after independence soon the major Economic problems begun to manifest in the peripheries, foreign debt and drought became the stifling factors for economic prosperity in the post independent Africa, as we can trace their root causes here.

CAUSES OF ECONOMIC CRISES IN AFRICA.
Neo-colonialism, even after independence the economies of Africans still were indirectly controlled by their former colonial masters, the marketing and the prices paid for exports were still controlled from the financial centers of the ‘developed’ nations. The Ghanaian leader Kwame Nkrumah coined the term ‘neo colonialism’ to describe Europe’s economic control over politically-independent Africa. The French and the British particularly maintained close control over the economies of their former colonies. This maintained low pricing of African produce and high prices of European finished goods. This heavily affected the economic status of Africa, economies such situation brought economic dependence and crisis. 

Absence of strong economic base to produce manufactured industrial goods for export, rather than primary goods that acted as raw materials in the metro pole. African government inherited two particular repressive economic policies from their colonial predecessors: poll tax and agriculture as the major source of foreign exchange through marketing boards the agriculture cash crops fetched low prices as compared to the prices of the imports of finished European goods. Poll tax was another source of government income but it was charged to every male adult regardless of their income but these revenues were very meager to escape any economic crisis.
The fall of coffee prices inl970s because of over production in Brazil affected the African economy which had no other alternative to export. African economies had inherited a monoculture system of cultivation from colonialism the back bone of African economic largely based on traditional cash crop of coffee and cotton which limited their foreign exchange. Thus the frequent fluctuation of the prices of those products heavily affected the economies of African economies hence the growing of economic crisis.

Highly depended economy based on agriculture and primary production, at independence the vast majority of Africa’s population was still based in rural areas, dependent partially or wholly upon substance farming. But government, dominated by urban educated elite, often scorned the rural peasant as backward and unproductive. And yet they themselves failed to invest surplus government funds or expensive foreign loans in the economy. Thus the problems of Africans that inherited were more than her income thus resorted on lending from international lenders while having low investment this led to economic crisis.

High interest rate on debts that acquired from European nation some time with pre-conditionality to implement first, this made it difficulty to pay back the debts especially after independence which made African nations to fail to pay or servicing back the debts, this resulted into economic crisis.

Disasters like prolonged drought in Tanganyika especially in 1981-1984 and 1990 and 1990. That totally crippled the backbone of African economies which had largely depended on the export of raw materials in Europe. This forced the government to borrow money from foreign sources as to fight famine and maintain the supply of basic needs of the people, hence debt crisis.

Poor administration and planning many, African countries embarked on early industrialization which was too ambitious and lacked proper planning and often inappropriate for the needs and resources of the country. African countries imported all the expertise, technology, machinery, and building materials from Europe and North America. The same applied to the social amenities like education medical and transport facilities which African new leaders were determined to provide for their people. Within few years the debt problem was beyond imagination thus economic crisis as to pay the debts.

The fall and the fluctuating prices of agricultural products, The African new leaders’ inability to do much beyond enriching them selves was coincided in the mid of 1 960s with dramatic fall in world commodity prices for Africa’s principle agricultural exports. Manufactured imports upon which Africa had become too dependant thus became relatively much more expensive. Many countries begun to cut back on imports no matter how much they needed them, so as to pay the swelling of foreign debts, inflation rose rapidly and they were shortage of goods in the shops. That marked the beginning of the economic crisis. .

Corruption, embezzlement and lavish spending, many government of those countries that had achieved independence around 1 960s especially in West Africa, had spent lavishly upon expensive industrial and prestige projects with insufficient concern for their appropriateness. Ghana’s Akasombo dam was a case in point. This huge hydroelectric project saddled Ghana with a crippling international debt and in the long term provided little practical advantage to the majority of Ghanaians and many such projects occurred in many countries in Africa, thus development of debt crisis.
 
CAUSES OF ECONOMIC CRISIS IN TANZANIA
In Tanzania the debt crisis had increased due to some particular problems faced by the country in 1970s that included the following events;
The long drought season of 1973-1974 and 1981-1984 where agriculture came into a stand still.
The oil price crisis of 1976 in the Middle East hindered all economic activities in Tanganyika.
The fall of East African community in 1977 also affected Tanzania.
The war against Idd Amin in 1978 .brought high expenditure.
The nationalization of all parastatal bodies which the government spent a lot of money with no returns

IMPACTS OF DEBT ECONOMIC CRISIS.
Accumulation of debts brought debt crisis in the third world countries, because of high interest rate on the original principle( money borrowed initially) was accumulating at an alarming speed that many African nations failed to pay back the loans acquired.

Decreasing welfare of the masses because o debt servicing and debt payment e.g. in Tanzania 40% of the total internal revenue goes to pay debts acquired in the past. Many African governments abandoned their development programs as to reserve some foreign exchange to repatriate the debts.

Increasing foreign intervention and dependence of African economies to the metro pole, European nations and north America begun to intervene in African economies as to monitor their debts payment some countries begun to give economic advise to the African nations as to be able to pay back the loans ‘experts’ were sent from Europe to assist in planning.

Unfavorable balance of payment where by African foreign exchange is low than what it needs this is because of high demand of foreign goods and few export of goods to European nations, and the little foreign exchange that is acquired is spent in paying back the debts.

Increase in the level of poverty among the masses because of low investments in Africa like in the industrial sector that may increase the employment rate in the country. Despite low investments also social amenities which would have facilitated trade were ignored like roads railway harbors feeder roads, all this led to general underdevelopment of national economy because of paying the debts.
 
STEPS TAKEN BY TANGANYIKA TO SOLVE THE ECONOMIC CRISIS.
Tanzania has taken serious steps since independence so as to solve the problems of economic crisis, which had brought far reaching impact on the masses; the majority of the population in Tanzania is living below international poverty line surviving on less than $ 1 a day. That’s why the country has taken serious measures to curb the debt burden which is the major causative factor of poverty in the country. These problems were divided into three forms from 1961-1967.-1968-1985, 1986 — to the present.

From 1961 -1966.
The programme to solve the problems of economic crisis begun immediately after independence, with 3 years development plan that aimed at improving agriculture, communication and education based on communist model, that included egalitarian measures (equal opportunity for all ) such measures included the following programmes.
Socialism and self reliance made in February 1967, salaries of government employees from the president down, were reduced to normal and measures were set to ensure that no civil servant or M.P or TANU office holder should continue in office if he retained any interest in the private business or if he employed labor (except for seasonal agriculture workers) this was very instrumental in curbing corruption and office abuse by the politicians.

Diversion of resources from urban areas to rural development and within agriculture the concentration on the overall advance of peasant farming rather than on highly organized and capitalized schemes with an impact on limited number of farmers. Gradually it intended that the rural population will regroup itself into ujamaa villages in which the people will work together on communal land so that development can benefit the all community not few individuals.
Administrative and education curriculum was changed in order to change it from a colonial relic to means of preparation for life in a socialist Tanzania. The new values of cooperative basis, it was recognized that development plans must be worked out on the basis of country’s own resources with foreign assistance regarded as an extra bonus rather than the main determinant of what should be done.

Emphasis was now to be put on small scale projects which required the labor the labor of the people principally; the people themselves were to be responsible for the largely rural development rather than leaving the government to take all the initiatives.

Nationalization of land from the colonialists and distributed to the people for economic development, it was another solution of self reliance was the determination that control of all major sources of investable funds and other vital resources should be in hands of local people this led to the nationalization of all foreign banks and other commercial and manufacturing private companies under complete or partially state ownership.

Removal of head tax, this head tax had no any significance from the majority peasants in the rural areas, it was unpopular in many areas in the villages it increased rather poverty among the masses since it was inherited from colonialism, the government establishment new sources of revenue correction of various means.

Reforms in the army and the establishment of union government in 1964 with Zanzibar.

From 1967 -1980s.
Establishment of Ujamaa village, in 1973-74 around, 8000 of such villages had been created, by 1977 around five million people were moved in such villages, masses were taken in demarcated villages to carry out community agriculture following the Arusha declaration 5th February 1967.

Nationalization and establishment parastatal bodies like TANESCO, TRC, NIC to offer services to the people. Not to generate profit

Man power and national experts were trained from inside and out side the country to help in technical issues of the nation.

Introduction and expansion of primary and secondary industry on small scale and large like SIDO in 1973.

Development of infrastructures to offer social services to the people like railways TAZARA, KIA in 1970s.

Expansion of agriculture by using slogan like “siasa ni kilimo” in 1972 to train peasant modern methods for cultivation.

Introduction of self reliance education to all citizens of Tanzania

Introduction of free universal education and adult education to remove illiteracy rate.

From1986- Present.
Introduction of trade liberalization policy that private businesses were allowed to operate along side with government parastatals.

Privatizations of some public enterprises where the government floated some of her shares to the public or fully privatized.

Acquiring of new loans and grants from IMF and World bank for national development.

Adoption of national human resource deployment programme. (Nguvu kazi).

WORLD BANK AND IMF AS A SOLUTION TO AFRICAN ECONOMIC PROBLEM 

BACKGROUND
The IMF was established on 27th December 1945 its headquarters are in Washington D.C USA, it was established as a result of Bretton Woods conference and her sister institution of world Bank. The major objectives of IMF and World Bank were; to promote international co operation, Economic growth and to eliminate all international trade barriers.
The trouble is that the IMF and its associate world bank , both Washington-based, are financed by the banks of ‘developed’ capitalist nations of western Europe and north America their priorities have reflected the interest of the capitalist ‘West’ which still regards African primarily as a source of raw materials for its own developed industries.

Following the worsening of economic conditions in many African states in 1980s-1990s African exports dropped in price ten or twenty times in relation with the manufactured imports. Running out of foreign exchange, even ‘self reliance’ government like that of Tanzania had to turn to, IMP for emergency foreign exchange and or further loans to pay the interest for the loans already too large them ever to pay off.

To get access to the funds of IMF it set some preconditions known as Structural adjustment programme (SAP) that aimed for economic recovery of African economies. Unfortunately these policies of SAP applied universally, have been modeled on the practices of developed capitalist system rather than on the specific needs and best interest of the individual African countries concerned. What were presented as solutions to underlying problems carried with them even greater problem of their own.

How ever some African scholars are viewing IMF and World Bank as institution of former colonial masters representing the interest of the imperialists through their new form of colonialism, known as neo colonialism, IMF and World bank are just increasing the African problems than they have solved, SAP has brought more poverty, and misery than it found.

CONDITIONALITIES OF STRUCTURAL ADJUSTMENT PROGRAMME (S.A.P)

The first condition was that the government was suppose to balance their budgets: in theory it meant a cut in annual growth of government debt such move affected much the social infrastructure development that were suppose to be provided by the government.

The second conditionality was to devaluation of the local currency: this aimed at making the exports to fetch high prices like cash crops and minerals in the world market. But also made imports more expensive since local currency had no value in relation to the foreign currency

Introduction of liberalization of capital controls, this aimed at solving the problem of lack of inadequate indigenous capital for investments through trade liberalization aimed at attracting foreign investments with foreign capital to improve the terms of trade. The policy also aimed at avoiding government monopoly control over foreign exchange and import restrictions and abandons trade protectionism.

Privatization of public entities owned by the government, so that the government should not own all business, but must share with the private investors both local and foreign to ensure proper management and to avoid unprofitable business.
Introducing free foreign exchange market to the public and to abolish the monopoly of government control over prices in the market, this was seen as one of the way to boost internal trade and to allow price mechanism to determine the prices.

Adoption of multiparty politics and abolish mono-party politics, this will work as check and balance to the ruling government where by abuses like corruption nepotism and abuse of public office can be dealt with by the opposition side of the government, that eventually good governance of transparency and accountability can be achieved.

To form a strong revenue body like T.R.A. that its corruption free to correct taxes from the business people as to control government budget deficits by increasing government revenues.

Reduce spending on public services by the government cost sharing must be introduced in some public services: the funding should be by individual and private groups this was targeting education and healthy sector.

Reduce the workforce by reducing the number of people employed by the government as to reduce government expenditure and to maintain efficiency.

IMPACTS OF SAP TO THE AFRICAN ECONOMY.
It led to mass un-employment because of because of the retrenchment policy of civil servants, whereby their life became misery no income the termination benefits given to them were meager to continue life.

Some policies of S.A.P ware impracticable hence promoted chaos violence and internal disputes in Africa like privatizing of all public enterprises.

It increased poverty, suffering and civil wars among the Africans since most of the policies increase dependency ratio between the African nations with the Europeans donor countries.

It increased corruption especially in privatization where transparency and un-accountability were non existent for stance secret agreement from the public in selling public entities embezzlement of funds.

It has undermined democracy and increase the existence of puppet leaders in many African nations that have adopted S .A.P. who are for the interest of the foreigners.

It has led to the influx of more capitalist investors to own essential investment in the nation like TANESCO, T.T.C.L this makes the economy to be owned by foreigners. Who are profits motivated rather than service oriented.

The devaluation of local currencies and the scrapping away of government subsidies in public sector like healthy have led to increase of income inequality which increases the level of poverty in the country.